One singular chromosome is made up of DNA and protein. However, chromosomes are found in the nucleus of a cell.

What are chromosomes made up of?

Sexual reproduction allows for 4 genetically unique daughter cells to be produced in order or genetic variation to occur. However, asexual reproduction creates identical cells which is why its good for growth, repair and reproduction.

asexual produces 4 identical cells, sexual produces 2 unique cells

asexual produces 2 identical cells, sexual produces 4 unique cells

What is the difference between asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction?

In oogensis, the cytoplasm does not divide equally and one egg receives most of the cytoplasm causing the other 3 to essentially die off resulting in a single ovum (egg cell).

What type of gametogenesis creates 3 polar bodies and one single viable cell?

Non-disjunction is the failure of chromosomes to separate and in doing so can result in many different genetic mutations such as trisomy 21 which is down syndrome or trisomy 13 which causes patau syndrome.

What is non-disjunction?

The process of meiosis creates four genetically unique daughter cells which helps with genetic variation and diversity.

What process is this?

In prophase 1 of meiosis, crossing over of chromosomes allows for genetic variation to occur by mixing paternal and maternal traits/characteristics together.

What happens during prophase 1 of meosis

Cells have two alleles for each gene (one on a chromosome from one parent one on a homologous chromosome from the other). Different allele combinations result in different traits.

What is an allele?

Pedigrees are charts used to see patterns of inheritance, more specifically genetic mutations inheritance from parent to offspring. 

Which one of these is not related to Mendelian inheritance 

Punnet squares are used to predict proportions of genotypes in offsprings and the likelihood of different traits showing up in said offspring. In this way we are also able to determine which traits might be dominant or recessive based on how the proportions show up in the results.

it is not used at all in the unit of genetics

to predict the proportions of genotypes in offsprings

What is this structure used for?

An example of complete dominance would be spotted cows otherwise known as roans or cattle. As for incomplete dominance an example of that would be a red and white flower mixing and creating a pink flower.

CD= doesn't blend, creates spots, ID= both alleles blend, creates new color

CD= both alleles blend, creates new color ID= doesn't blend, creates spots

What is the difference between co-dominace and incomplete dominance?

Pedigrees are structures used to see patterns of inheritance throughout generations and from which parent they might have originated from.

What is the name of this structure?

Because the genotype can be heterozygous or homozygous there is a possible chance the offspring will end up with the recessive allele. This just means they carry the trait but it may lay dormant or not affect them. However they can still pass it on to their children. They would essentially have one copy of that disorder only.

yes, only one parent needs to have the gene

no, both parents must be autosomal recessive

If one parent is homozygous (autosomal) recessive for a genetic disorder, (the other is unaffected, homozygous dominant). Is it possible for their offspring to be a carrier of the disorder?

Autosomal dominant parents will always have affected children because there is only one copy needed in order for them to be carriers.

only needs one copy of the gene to have the disorder

needs two copies to present with the disorder

needs to have one recessive and one dominant to have the disorder

What is meant by the term autosomal dominant?

Woman can be carriers of an x-linked disorder and pass on that gene to their offspring but don't express it themselves. However it is more prominent for males to present dominant with an x-linked disorder because they do not have a gene on the Y chromosome to combat the disorder whereas woman have two x's making it easier to combat the disorder.

Males only have one x chromosome and there is no matching genes on the Y

Why is X-Linked recessive more prominent in males?

The molecules that make up DNA are called nucleotides and a nucleotide is made up of a phosphate group, a sugar and a nitrogenous base. The four nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).

nucleotides, phosphate group, sugars, nitrogenous base

What is the structure of DNA made up of?

Purines are a type of nitrogenous base with a double ring. The nitrogenous bases that fall into this category are adenine and guanine. 

What are Purines?

Pyrimidines are nitrogenous bases with a single ring and the nitrogenous bases of DNA that fall into that category are thymine and cytosine. However, Uracil is still a pyrimidine, it's just found in RNA only.

Where is Uracil found?

Because type O is a recessive blood type, there needs to be two copies of the allele in order for it to show up. So both individuals would have the genotype (ii) and when using a punnet square we can see if you cross that genotype with each other you still end up with ii or type O blood and type A requires an A in the genotype.

If two individuals have type O blood, can they produce an offspring with type A blood?

Dihybrid crosses allow for us to look for patterns of inheritance simultaneously.

a cross involving 3 genes each with heterozygous alleles

a cross involving 2 genes each with heterozygous alleles

a cross that involves heterozygous and homozygous alleles

Choose the answer that is the most correct definition for a dihybrid cross.

Induced mutations are from exposure to physical or chemical toxins in the environment whereas spontaneous is caused by errors in cell division like incorrect copying of DNA during replication of chromosomes.

What are the two most common causes of genetic mutations?

Gene therapy is an experimental technique used to correct defective genes by inserting a normal copy of the gene or correcting the mistake in the sequence.

separates the defective gene from the good ones

corrects the mistake out of the gene sequence 

corrects defective genes by inserting a normal copy of the gene

How does Gene therapy affect humans?

The common meaning for evolution is an educated guess but the scientific meaning is a model that explains large bodies of evidence. Essentially proof for things we see all around us.

an explanatory model that accounts for large bodies of evidence

What is the definition of evolution?

The smallest unit that can evolve is populations. Individuals cannot evolve because evolution takes place over thousands of years and not an individuals lifespan. 

Who can evolve?

There is no environmental mutation. The three types of mutations are the beneficial ones for species, the ones that harm species and the ones that do not affect species whatsoever.

Which one of these is NOT a mutations?

After his trip to the Galapagos Islands, he published a book called "The Origin of Species" which explains his finding on the finches in different parts of the islands and how their beak sizes depended on their environmental habitats. He progressed the idea of natural selection and how species can adapt to become better suited for their environments, to improve survival and reproduction rates.

Darwin developed the idea of natural selection.

Relates back to natural selection in the way that adaptations can make a species better suited for their environment. And natural selection favours those best suited for their habitats. 

characteristic or feature that makes a species well suited for survival

the process of evolution within indivuals

What are adaptations?

Not all variations become adaptations because some variations do not determine whether or not a species is best suited for survival and reproduction. One example of this would be hair colour or eye colour because although everyone has different hair or eye colour it does not determine how well we survive in our environments.

All variations become adaptions.

Analogous features are the same function, different structure. They all function to be able to make a species fly but are different structures in order to specifically suit that species.

What type of process is this?

Vestigal features are features that served a functional purpose in previous stages of evolution but no do not serve any purpose and are just there. They provide evidence of evolution. An example of this would be the appendix in the human digestive system, or goosebumps

Are vestigial features important in the body?

When looking through rock sediment, we can see more simplistic fossil at the bottom and more complex fossils will be closer to surface level because organisms today descended from more simplistic ones

Explain what fossil records show us.

Half life is the time it takes for radioactive material to decay to half its mass, and because radioisotopes are unstable they will spontaneously break down. Half life predicts how long it will take for those radioisotopes to decay to half its mass. But Half life is not specific to just radioisotopes.

half life is the time it takes for a radioisotope to decay to half its mass

half life is the time it takes for a radioisotope to decay to 3/4 its mass

half life is the time it takes for a radioisotope to decay to 1/4 its mass

How are half life and radioisotopes related?

Pseudogenes are the genes that code for vestigial features which are the features no longer needed in this stage of evolution. Meaning that they basically do not code for functioning proteins anymore. 

How are pseudogenes connected to vestigial features?

Directional selection favors an increase or decrease in the value of traits. Meaning a shift away from the medium/ middle traits. In the basic sense, this type of selection favours either side of the spectrum but not the in-between. So either long billed or short billed beaks are the most favoured or one at all. The medium billed beaks are the unfavoured traits.

What type of selection is this picture?

Genetic drift has nothing to due with natural selection. It is a change in the gene pool due to chance not due to natural selections usual favouring of a species for which is best suited for a certain environment. This is more pronounced in small populations.

Genetic drift is due to natural selection

Females invest an immense amount of energy into carrying and raising offspring, so they chose the male that is most likely to give her healthy offspring. The runaway effect is the process of females choosing a mate based on physical coloration or behavior. 

Explain why female mate choice is related to natural selection

Temporal breeding is simply different species breeding at different times of the year. Like the picture shown, bees might only breed during April for example, and hummingbirds might only breed during the month of June. This is aprezygotic mechanism because it stops interbreeding between bees and humming birds due to their different year round breeding times.

"Breeding at different times of the year." Which type of prezygotic mechanism is this?

Mules are a result of horses and donkeys breeded together. However, the mule is unaffected by the sterility they simply cannot produce offsprings. But artificially more mules can be created just not naturally through animal reproduction.

How does hybrid infertility effect offsprings?

Allopatric speciation is the process of species being separated entirely geographically. This means different species will become geographically isolated from one another. Which then leads to the evolution of new species.

What type of speciation is shown below?

Abiogenesis also known as the origin of life from non living things, accounts for life that arose from non-living things through natural processes. 

What describes best describes abiogenesis?

The theory of gradualism suggest that as new species evolve, they will appear very similar to the original species and gradually will start to become more distinctive. Over long periods of time small changes accumulate, resulting in dramatically different organisms.

What theory is shown below?

Cladograms are used to illustrate the evolutionary relationships, or phylogeny of different groups of organisms. relationships based on the presence or absence of recently evolved traits.

to show how well certain characteristics mix together

to show geographical separation of organisms over time

to show evolutionary relationship between organisms

to differentiate between traits between organisms

Why are cladograms used?

A change in the genes is what halts the production of this specific enzyme which gives people their skin color (melanin).

Why do people with albinism lack melanin?

Trivia questions based on the Biology units Genetics and Evolution. Sets of questions to test knowledge, understanding, vocab, application + inquiry/lab based